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### The Arrival of Europeans in India ###
India, with its fabled wealth and spices, had always been a magnet for traders. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to find a direct sea route, with Vasco da Gama landing in Calicut in 1498. They established a strong naval presence and controlled the spice trade for a century. They were followed by the Dutch, the English, the Danes, and the French. These European powers initially came as trading companies—the Estado da Índia, the VOC (Dutch East India Company), the EIC (British East India Company), and the French East India Company.
### The Struggle for Supremacy ###
The competition for trade soon turned into a struggle for political power. The decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century created a power vacuum that the Europeans were eager to fill. The British and the French became the two main rivals. They fought a series of wars, known as the Carnatic Wars, in South India. The British, led by Robert Clive, eventually emerged victorious, defeating the French and their Indian allies. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 was a turning point, where the British defeated the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, effectively marking the beginning of British political rule in India.
### Consolidation of British Power ###
After Plassey, the British East India Company steadily expanded its control. The Battle of Buxar in 1764 confirmed their military supremacy and granted them the "Diwani" rights (the right to collect revenue) in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. They used a combination of military conquest and diplomatic policies like the "Subsidiary Alliance" (introduced by Lord Wellesley) and the "Doctrine of Lapse" (introduced by Lord Dalhousie) to annex more territories. By the mid-19th century, the British were the paramount power in the Indian subcontinent, controlling it either directly or through puppet princes.
### Economic Impact of British Rule ###
The primary objective of British rule was the economic exploitation of India. India was transformed from a major exporter of textiles and handicrafts into a supplier of raw materials for British industries and a market for British manufactured goods. This "de-industrialization" devastated Indian artisans and weavers. The introduction of new land revenue systems like the Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari System placed a heavy burden on the peasantry, leading to widespread poverty and frequent famines.